Environmental Politics
Environmental Politics
Environmental Politics
Abstract
In ancient philosophy, practice existed only to create space for the wise to contemplate theory. In the ideal of modern science, however, science is an abstract system of cognition, providing the basis for technological control of nature.
The stocks framework is an attempt to overcome the gap between theory and practice, between academics and practitioners. In contrast to Mainstream Economics, Ecological Economics emphasizes the role of time in politics by examining the dynamics of economic, social and environmental stocks and their relationships. Stocks may be material or immaterial, such as a social institution like legislation.
Our applied example examines the development of sustainable inland shipping policy in Germany. To this end, we proceed in seven steps, starting with the policy aims and relevant facts known about German inland shipping. This enables us to identify the relevant material and immaterial stocks associated and their dynamics. In doing so we can summarise the normative demands placed on German inland shipping policy by the general principle of sustainability and formulate concrete goals. Finally, we propose concrete policy recommendations for the transportation system.
The last chapter describes the stocks framework as a school of long-term thinking. It shows how a practitioner is able to learn to deal with issues over long timescales.
We note that this concept is almost identical to chapters 12 and 13 of the book Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking by Klauer et al. 2017.
Key Contributers: Hans Christoph Binswanger – Dieter Ewringmann – Beate Hermann – Frank Jöst – Bernd Klauer – Henrike Koschel – Mi-Yong Lee – Peter Michaelis – Georg Müller-Fürstenberger – Horst Niemes – Thomas Petersen – Philipp Gay – J.L.R. Proops – Martin Quaas – Matthias Ruth – Stefan Speck – Gunter Stephan – Gerhard Wagenhals – Ralph Winkler – Franz Josef Wodopia – Angelika Zahrnt
Related concepts: BASICS OF TIME – BASICS OF LIFE – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – HOMO OECONOMICUS & HOMO POLITICUS – POWER OF JUDGEMENT – IGNORANCE
1. History
This concept of MINE differs from the others in that we explore not a concept but the question of action in environmental politics.
Theory and practice in Ancient philosophy
The natural sciences replace ancient and medieval traditions
The second aspect concerns the practice that accompanies this approach to gaining knowledge: The possibility of recognising certain relationships in nature leads to an overall growing, albeit partial, control of the forces of nature. The good fortune of Bacon’s vaunted marriage of nature and reason hence is reserved for the latter which merely sees nature as a means for achieving the loftiest goals of humanity: “The human race’s power and domination over the whole of nature’ (Bacon quoted after Meyer-Abich 1986: 136) is man’s highest ambition. The word ‘domination’ denotes a central problem of modern science” (This paragraph has been translated from Faber and Manstetten 2014: 55-57.).
Environmental policy: the Stocks framework
Mapping the Interplay between Nature and the Economy (MINE) takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating the aspect of time – BASICS OF TIME – THERMODYNAMICS – IRREVERSIBILITY – EVOLUTION – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE. Using the stocks framework allows us to describe a problem in such a way that non-specialists can understand the dynamics of it and thus its environmental and economic impacts.
During the 1980s and 1990s both the concept of capital and – less conspicuously – the conceptual pairing of stock and flow, used as a means to study intertemporal decisions in economic systems, were introduced into the debate around sustainability – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE. These issues were studied prominently in the context of neo-Austrian capital theory (Faber 1986: Chapter 3, Faber and Proops 1998, Stephan 1996, Faber et al. 1999, Winkler 2003; see for a Mainstream Economics’ (neoclassical) perspective Bliss 1975, Burmeister 1980).
At certain points in this process these concepts were interpreted in new ways. Materials flows were a significant element in this, particularly in the debate about the closed substance cycle economy and life cycle assessments. At the same time, efforts were underway in ecology to understand ecosystems as networks of materials and energy flows, a subject taken up by ecological economists to generate information about their sustainability. The concept of stock developed in this concept takes its point of departure from this revised understanding of Georgescu-Roegen’s term. Unlike him, however, we are less concerned with distinguishing between stocks and flows than with observing long term dynamics by directing attention towards the long-term persistence and constancy (Beständigkeit) of things” (Klauer et al. 2017: 34). A first attempt to develop a general theory of stocks was made by Faber et al. (2005a, 2005b) and by Klauer et al. (2013, 2017).
2. Theory
We offer a framework to deal with political policy in general and sustainability policy in particular. First, we deal with the question as to how it is possible to overcome the gap between theory and practice between academics and practitioner (Section 2.1). We emphasize how important the role of time is in politics (Section 2.2). To consider time adequately, a stocks framework must be developed, as is done in Sections 2.3 to 2.4, which allows an understanding of ecological, economic and social interconnections. In Section 2. 5 we demonstrate how the stocks framework can be applied to problems of sustainability.
2.1 Overcoming the gap between theory and practice
Rather, by accepting it as given, they use it as a springboard to highlight ways of dealing constructively with it. Their conceptual framework of stocks [BASICS OF LIFE – BASICS OF TIME and Section 2.2 below], which takes certain ideas from the economic theory of capital (Bliss 1975, Burmeister 1980, Stephan 1995, Faber et al. 1999), elaborates them further and has been tested in three case studies (Klauer et al. 2017), is evidence of the extent to which they have succeeded in doing so. It is no exaggeration to claim that it constitutes a new method in research-based policy advice. Within five minutes flat – the amount of time politicians grant academics for an initial advisory session – advisers can present a diagnosis, analysis and potential remedies for complex long-term problems. Although the method has been developed based on scholarly – especially philosophical – foundations it is not itself an academic discipline but rather an art: the art of long-term thinking.
If fundamental changes are to be made to transportation, an overview of stocks in terms of roads, cars, motor vehicle companies, traffic regulations, transportation plans, transportation volume and typical behaviour in traffic makes it plain straight away that such changes can only be made over the long term and only with political will coupled with patience and determination. Stocks – in German Bestände – draw attention to the fact that a particular thing that exists – das Bestehende – is by nature long lasting and inert, in other words, that it displays persistence over time – Beständigkeit – regardless of whether or not we wish it to continue. When dealing with stocks, the key is to develop a ‘sense of time’ –BASICS OF TIME. It is not only a matter of possessing patience and endurance, it is also a matter of recognising the right moment to act, much like Field Marshall Kutuzov in Tolstoy’s War and Peace (cf. Section 8.4 in Klauer et al. 2017 and BASICS OF TIME).
2.2 Time and policymaking: the stocks framework
Time as the main theme
The topic of time “is seldom placed at the centre of scholarly study – perhaps precisely because it is so fundamental and ever present. In fact, the same is true even of sustainability research, where thinking in long-term time spans ought to be taken for granted. In academic studies, time is generally dealt with (if at all) as a secondary issue or as merely implicit. The topic has no prominent place in present day philosophy either. In this project, however, we have placed this topic firmly centre stage. Both as academics and philosophers we are keen to explore ways of acquiring the ability to think in long timescales. We seek to provide knowledge that serves as an orientation for practical political action in situations where it is crucial to adopt a long-term perspective” (Klauer et al. 2017: xv). How prominent the theme time is in MINE can be seen from the fact that it appears directly or indirectly in the title of seven of fifteen concepts of MINE (BASICS OF TIME – THERMODYNAMICS – IRREVERSIBILITY – EVOLUTION – BASICS OF LIFE – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS).
Note that in BASICS OF LIFE: STOCKS, STORES AND FUNDS, time plays a dominant role, since “the concept of stock (Bestand) enables objects to be depicted in terms of their temporality, changeability, persistence and inertia” (Klauer et al. 2017: 177).
2.3 Perspectives: systems and stocks
We previously referred to the stocks framework in BASICS OF TIME (Chapter 2). We noted that “the stocks concept is embedded in a stocks framework consisting of the three key concepts of time, stock – BASICS OF LIFE – and judgement POWER OF JUDGEMENT. The stocks framework is designed to facilitate action that is guided by judgement and oriented towards achieving sustainability – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE. When use the method and the key concepts of the stocks framework to gain a comprehensive view of a specific sustainability problem, we say that they are adopting a stocks perspective – this is illustrated in chapter 3 below” (Klauer et al. 2017: 36).
– the systems perspective, in which things are always regarded as being part of a system, and
– the stocks perspective, in which ecological/economic/social systems are perceived first and foremost as being a conglomeration of stocks.
Systems perspective
Understanding nature, society and the economy, or their aspects, in terms of a system means not merely looking at things in isolation from one another but taking an interest in the particular way these things are interconnected with one another. An omniscient individual wishing to devise policy action for sustainability would consider the interplay between all the interactions that occur in nature and society in order to reach the best of all possible decisions based on this knowledge. The notion of achieving a full and complete understanding of the world and acting on this basis seems to be the (unachievable) ideal of scientifically grounded policy making – IGNORANCE. One could call such a depiction of the entirety of interrelationships and interactions an ‘ecological/economic/social comprehensive system’.
The stocks perspective
The systemic perspective and stocks perspective
The new knowledge gained from the stocks perspective should likewise not be construed as an attempt to construct a comprehensive system. Rather, the aim of this analytical process is to generate practical knowledge that is structured systematically and is tailored to address a specific sustainability problem. In addition to scientific knowledge, experiential knowledge and judgement should also feed into this process, and ignorance and uncertainty – IGNORANCE – should also be given consideration alongside inconsistencies and contradictions” (Klauer et al. 2017: 178-179).
2.4 The stocks framework: time, inherent time and dynamics, and judgement
Time
“Sustainability in general requires a long-term timescale – BASICS OF TIME – because the impacts of today’s actions need to be considered not only in relation to the basic resources for life of those alive today but also to those of future generations – ABSOLUTE & RELATIVE SCARCITY. For this reason, we need to be concerned with the temporal structures of things which are either durable in themselves or give rise to long-term effects. Terms that refer to the persistence and long-term nature of things include enduringness, inertia, stability, persistence, dynamic, change, upheavals, arising and passing away and, in the case of living things, living and dying – BASICS OF LIFE. While such phenomena are addressed by the concept of stock, there are a number of concepts relating to the aspect of time which are preliminary to the stock concept. These concepts are chronos, inherent time and inherent dynamic, and Kairos – BASICS OF TIME. These are concepts that illuminate different aspects of time and simultaneously constitute different ways of addressing things in relation to time.
Chronos
Inherent time and inherent dynamic
Kairos
For people who want to achieve something and to act, kairos – BASICS OF TIME – is of utmost importance. Kairos is the right moment, the suitable opportunity. Those who manage to find the kairos do not act at an inopportune moment but rather at the right time. Kairos matches a subject who not only registers things (such as the chronicler) or acquires knowledge (like the observer of inherent dynamic) but who also has goals and the will to achieve them. A person who has such a will always observes a field of action with regard to potentially intervening in it. In doing so, she takes account of the inherent dynamics both of the objects themselves and of the ways they are interlinked. She looks for a window of opportunity in which she can take action and can influence the course of events. Looking at the inherent dynamics helps her to surmise or perceive an upcoming window of opportunity before it occurs and, if necessary, perhaps even to work towards it.
Stocks
We introduced the concept of stock – BASICS OF LIFE – in order to address objects from the point of view of their temporal development (enduringness, change, arising, passing away) – i.e. their inherent dynamic – and to distinguish between them accordingly. The inertia and stability of things point to their persistence. A stock is always something that exists for (a certain) duration. It is precisely this property that makes stocks an interesting object of study when it comes to analysing long term developments and seeking to achieve sustainability.
Material stocks
Immaterial stocks
– Patterns of behaviour can be observed directly, therefore they constitute the ‘outside’, as it were, of institutions.
– Whether or not a rule – be it formal, such as a law, or informal, such as a convention or mode of interaction – is effective cannot be observed directly but can only be discerned through reflection. The rules and their factual validity are thus the ‘inside’, as it were, of institutions. For example, whether or not a rule is in effect can only be ascertained indirectly from people’s behaviour, from surveys, from introspection or from a shared view of the world (‘that’s the way it is’).
Judgement
2.5 The stocks framework as a heuristic for sustainability policies
This appeal to judgement should not be taken to mean that a person should merely point to their intuition or gut feeling (something they either have or do not have) when making a decision. Rather, the outcomes that emerge from applying the faculty of judgement should also adhere to certain criteria – points of orientation, guidelines and procedural rules, heuristics – which help to provide a rationale for judgements and to make them comprehensible and communicable. (As mentioned in BASICS OF TIME, a heuristics is the art of finding something that cannot simply be concluded or deduced from our knowledge, such as a scientific law, a solution to a problem, or a good decision, see in particular Section 3.5) – Points of orientation and guidelines help to ensure that the goal always remains in view during the process of problem solving, while procedural rules give an idea of how to proceed on terrain that is initially complicated and seemingly impenetrable. A procedural rule differs from a law of nature or an algorithm in that it represents a rule of thumb and explicitly allows for exceptions.
Formulating a heuristic
In the following we propose a heuristic [for an extensive explanation of the term see BASICS OF TIME] which is based on the core elements of the stocks framework and offers guidelines, questions and procedural rules to help the sustainability policy maker get a reasonable overall picture of a given sustainability problem. This picture should be neither too simple nor too complex. The aim of the heuristic is to achieve an accurate and workable definition of a sustainability problem, to establish what needs to be done in response, and to recognise or discover potential options for action. Applying the heuristic requires judgement, yet at the same time it provides information on which judgement can draw to determine what is to be done. The heuristic cannot be used like a recipe, however; it is more like a general guideline that enables a problem to be unpacked so that is then amenable to potential practical solutions.
The importance of defining the problem
The heuristic of the stock framework: 7 steps
“1. Become aware of existing knowledge, review prevailing opinions, conjectures and insights.
2. Develop ideas for sustainability and frame the problem.
3. “Identify relevant stocks.
4. “Describe the inherent dynamic of these stocks.
5. “Sort through and order knowledge about the relevant stocks and their inherent dynamics and integrate it into an overall picture.
6. “Formulate concrete sustainability objectives.
7. “Identify the sustainability problem and what needs to be done.
“Although these steps prescribe a linear progression, it is certainly legitimate to diverge from it should circumstances require. For example, some steps or sequences of steps may need to be gone through several times in an iterative manner, and it may be advisable to look back over the steps already taken in order to ensure they have been dealt with properly” (Klauer et al. 2017: 187; the seven steps are described in more detail in Klauer et al. 2017: 187-199).
3. The MINE Project: Focus on Fundamental Concepts
3. Practice
We want to show how our conceptual method, the framework of stocks, can be employed to analyse a concrete example, the inland shipping policy in Germany (Section 3.1). In Section 3.2. we examine how politicians can manage this task. To this end, we proceed in seven steps, starting with the policy aims and relevant facts known about German inland shipping (steps 1 and 2). This enables us to identify the relevant material and immaterial stocks and their (inherent) dynamics (steps 3 and 4). This enables us to develop an overall picture (step 5). We can then summarise the normative demands placed on German inland shipping policy by the general principle of sustainability and formulate concrete goals. Finally, we place the key elements of a sustainable inland shipping policy (Step 6) in relation to the current situation in order to propose concrete policy recommendations for the transportation system (step 7). Section 3.3 deals with right time for action. In Section 3.4 we offer some general reflections on our procedure. Finally, a concise summary is given as to how the stocks framework can be employed as a lesson in long-term thinking (Section 3.5).
3.1 Applying the heuristic to inland shipping policy
An old English saying goes, the proof of the pudding is in the eating. We, therefore, want to “apply the heuristic for sustainability policy – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – developed in the BASICS OF TIME, Sections 3.4 to 3.6 (for more details see Klauer et al. 2017: chapter 11) to a practical case study to illustrate how it works. In the following brief study, we examine how political decision makers can manage inland shipping in Germany in a sustainable way – or at least in a way that is more sustainable than at present. It is based on Klauer and Gunkel (2009). Our main focus at this point, however, is on method. Using this example, we want to demonstrate that the heuristic developed in the previous chapter can be put to practical use to generate a rough overall picture of a given problem using relatively simple means, to outline the need for action and, where necessary, to gain pointers toward options for action and windows of opportunity for implementing them. The example is also provided as an illustration of how to make the abstract and rather general description given in the previous chapter easier to understand. There are two things we wish to highlight in particular:
It is in the nature of a heuristic that the information it helps to generate is neither inevitable nor incontrovertible. Of course, it is always possible to arrive at the same information by another route, that is, without the heuristic. The heuristic, then, is merely a device designed to help the enquirer move systematically along a path toward sustainable solutions. It cannot, however, be applied in a purely schematic or automatic way but rather requires expert understanding and the faculty of judgement – Power of Judgement” (Klauer et al. 2017: 201).
3.2 How can politicians manage inland shipping in Germany in a sustainable way?
In 2009, the coalition treaty between the conservative CDU and the liberal FDP explicitly stated the importance of sustainability in German inland shipping: “Free flowing rivers are highly valuable in ecological terms” (Coalition treaty between CDU, CSU and FDP, 17th legislative period 2009-2013: 23). In particular, the intention was formulated “to give the national waterways greater priority when it comes to disbursing investment funding. We will remove unnecessary bureaucratic obstacles to shipping and put forward a draft law aimed at reforming the Waterways and Shipping Administration” (Klauer et al. 2017: 202).
We want to employ the seven steps of the heuristic developed in Section 3.2 above “to find out what the sustainability problems are in relation to German inland shipping policy and where there is need for action” (Klauer et al. 2017: 202). To this end, we have first to look at important facts about German inland shipping.
Step 1 – Become aware of prior knowledge about German inland shipping
Inland waterway transport on the federal waterways requires good and reliable navigation conditions, as far as is possible – in other words, waterways should be passable throughout the year wherever possible, with a sufficient depth and no significant obstacles. In order to do justice to these requirements and also to allow flood water to run off more easily, the waterways have been and are being improved and continuously maintained. As a result, most waterways are non-natural, technically altered stretches of water containing very different species than they otherwise would and fulfilling a limited role as flood barriers. Rivers in a near-natural state – of which there are hardly any left in Germany – offer poor conditions for shipping. They are generally characterised by changing water levels, shifting riverbeds and shifting sand banks, potholes and shallows – all in all, then, a highly dynamic riverscape.
There has frequently been heated debate among experts and the general public in the past – some lasting for years or even decades – about the pros and cons of expanding Germany’s rivers into navigable waterways and maintaining them over the long term as well as about canal building projects. Well-known examples include the controversy over the construction of the Rhine-Main-Danube canal (cf. Glas 1996), the expansion of the river Saale (cf. Petry and Klauer 2005) and maintenance activities on the river Elbe (cf. Petschow and Wlodarski 2009).
Step 2 – Briefly consider relevant aspects of sustainability and develop ideas for sustainable inland shipping
What does ‘sustainability’ mean in the context of inland shipping policy? Generally speaking, sustainability – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – is a normative model to which the German government has committed itself, in part in its national sustainability strategy entitled ‘Perspectives for Germany’ (German Federal Government 2002). Sustainability demands that the different interests of current and future generations – INDIVIDUAL, COMMUNITY & ENTIRETY – be balanced in a fair manner and that the natural conditions necessary for human survival should be preserved. To do justice to this model it is necessary to adopt a long-term perspective – BASICS OF TIME – and to take account, for example, of the impacts of demographic change, climate change, globalisation and the development of the economic structure from an industrial to a service-based economy when looking towards the future and deciding what policy action to take.
Sustainability, then, is initially an abstract demand which needs to be rendered specific in relation to inland shipping in order to be politically effective and provide practical guidance in individual cases. This macro-social task entails formulating an idea about what structure our economic development in general and inland shipping in particular should have, what transportation ideals are important to us, what features functioning habitats, landscapes and infrastructures should possess and how strictly or loosely nature and environmental conservation should be handled – TELEOLOGICAL CONCEPT OF NATURE. In other words, sustainable shipping policy cannot be designed in isolation from macro-social and economic development and certainly not from other domains of transportation policy – indeed it must be integrated into these.
Neither the above mentioned coalition treaty nor the relevant legislation offers any clear answers to these questions. The national sustainability strategy contains the vague and currently rather unrealistic demand to decouple the development of motorised transportation from economic growth (German Federal Government 2002: 111). An ideal scenario (impossible to achieve) would seek to have both at the same time – inexpensive goods transportation that is environmentally sound and uses up fewer resources alongside (cultural) landscapes that are as close to natural as possible. However, because these options are mutually exclusive in a single location (at least given existing technologies), it is necessary to deal with the conflict that exists between creating the best possible shipping conditions on the one hand and preserving or re-creating river stretches in their natural state on the other. One important approach to balancing these different objectives is to establish spatial priorities for goods transportation and nature-like landscapes in such a way that both can be regarded as being met on a larger scale.
The policy strategies quoted above neither address the conflict between the different objectives nor do they take account of the possible approach to dealing with them just mentioned. This suggests that the debate about the different objectives of creating optimum shipping conditions and preserving natural rivers and river meadows has not yet been conducted to the point of resolution in Germany.
Steps 3 and 4 – What are the relevant stocks associated with German inland shipping and what are their (inherent) dynamics?
Material stocks
The role of inland shipping in transportation
In the so-called modal split between the various forms of freight transport, inland shipping accounts for far less than 10% of total freight transport, with a declining trend. The German government’s current prediction regarding the future of freight transport to the year 2050 (Ickert et al. 2007: 4) is that the proportion of freight accounted for by inland shipping will continue to decline in the modal split, whereas that of rail and road freight will increase slightly. In absolute figures, though, the prediction is for there to be a surge of growth in all forms of freight transportation. Inland shipping is predicted to see a growth rate of 36.3% by 2030 and of 56.6% by 2050 (in each case using 2005 as the base year) (ibid.). Predictions over such a long period of time should be treated with caution – IGNORANCE –, of course, given that they assume there will be no structural breaks along the way. Nonetheless it does not appear unreasonable to assume that all forms of transportation will see a marked increase in freight traffic even as the relative significance of inland shipping declines (cf. Petschow and Wlodarski 2009: 73-74).
Immaterial stocks: transportation infrastructure
Stocks relevant to environmental protection and conservation
1) the stock of near-natural river meadows and
Step 5 – Sort existing knowledge and integrate it into an overall picture
Relevant stocks developing over time
Conflicts between different sustainability goals
Combined effect of informal and formal institutions
However, it is not only the policy debate between the relevant organisations and interest groups that fails to take adequate account of the complexity of the infrastructure system and the multitude of demands that are made on it: The formal institution Federal Transport Infrastructure Planning does the same – even though it is based on a far-reaching and comparatively well documented method (see BMVBW 2002 and Petry and Klauer 2005). The plans predicting the needs for various forms of transportation – roads, rail and waterways – are still drawn up largely independently of one another.
In summary, it can be said that the interests, mindsets and patterns of argumentation adopted by the Waterways and Shipping Administration and the representatives of inland shipping as well as the regulations stipulated by nationwide transportation planning lead to a pronounced inertia that stands in the way of any reform of institutions and ultimately of any attempt to examine the fitness for purpose of the waterways network.
Step 6 –The key elements of a sustainable inland shipping policy: concrete sustainability goals
– An efficient infrastructure geared towards needs: The enormous sums spent on maintaining and investing in the waterway’s infrastructure should be justified on economic grounds. Currently it is doubtful whether some of Germany’s waterways are economically efficient when one sets the costs of maintenance against the transportation benefits. This makes it appropriate to examine economic efficiency not only in relation to investment in expansion projects but also in relation to maintenance measures.
– Balancing interests fairly: A comprehensive process of deliberation will take account not only of the interests of businesses in inexpensive goods transportation but also of the interests of current and future generations in terms of access to a healthy natural environment and life-enhancing landscapes. The species diversity that exists in river meadows is a major reason why they require even greater protection than other natural habitats. (BMU 2007). In particular it is important to note that there is currently a largely irresolvable conflict at the local level between waterways expansion for shipping and the goal of preserving a near-natural structure of Germany’s waterways.
– Institutional development of the German Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV): With regard to its organisational structures the WSV needs to be reformed in such a way that not only the interests of inland shipping – to ensure that shipping conditions are as beneficial as possible – but also the opposing interests regarding maintaining near-natural conditions for water bodies are systematically taken into account.
– Integrative planning: Roads, railways and rivers and the modes of transportation they support are interconnected and, to an extent, act as substitutes for one another. The predicted needs set out in nationwide transportation plans have thus far given insufficient consideration to this fact. The methods used by Federal Transport Infrastructure Planning (according to which the plans for road, rail and waterways projects are drawn up largely independently of one another) ought in the future to be geared towards drawing up systematic, integrated plans for all the transportation networks.
Step 7 – Define the sustainability problem and outline the need for action
Examine the Federal Waterways Network in terms of economic efficiency and formulate priorities for use
Summing up:
– Sustainable inland shipping should continue above all on those rivers that have already been improved for this purpose. There should be no further improvements and very little further maintenance undertaken on rivers which are unimportant economically or of special ecological value.
What this means in practice is that low-traffic waterways – such as the Elbe south of Magdeburg and the Saale – are not to be improved at all but only maintained. However, the ministers for transport of the federal states of Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg are up in arms about this classification of the Elbe and the Saale. In response to them, the Federal Ministry of Transport on the same website:
‘We deploy resources according to need, not according to state boundaries. Our planning is based on realities – the conditions and facts of nature in Germany. 85% of inland shipping in Germany takes place on the Rhine and its tributaries – the same amount in a single week as takes place on all the other waterways combined in a year. […] The optimistic predictions of growth in shipping for the new [former East] German states made in the 1990s have not come to pass. Further improvements are therefore neither necessary nor financially feasible in the foreseeable future.’
Reform Germany’s Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV)
The WSV has enormous capacity in terms of staff and expertise. In the past, however, this has been directed mainly at creating the best possible conditions for shipping, whereas other tasks such as achieving the ecological objectives of the European Water Frame Directive (WFD) have not been tackled adequately (cf. BMVBS 2010: 290). In structural terms, one point of critique is that the WSV combines planning, implementation and approval in a single organisation. The aim of modern waterways legislation ought to be to make the planning of new waterways projects and of improvements to existing waterways subject to monitoring by the legislative authorities. Coordination and consultation regarding work carried out by the WSV and work carried out by other authorities at national and federal state level that are responsible, among other things, for flood protection, implementing the WFD at water catchment level and nature conservation should be further improved (Möckel 2009). To sum up:
– It is imperative to examine the tasks and competencies of the WSV, to redefine them and, in the process, adapt the structures of all relevant agencies and authorities accordingly.
Advance the methodological development of Federal Transport Infrastructure Planning
– Federal Transport Infrastructure Planning should be based on a concept of sustainable transportation and logistics and should be developed further into a planning instrument that includes and integrates all modes of transportation.
– The aim of decoupling economic development from the development of transportation should lead to specific measures aimed at limiting goods traffic” (Klauer et al. 2017: 209-216).
3.3 Kairos – the right time to act
“To what extent does this analysis of stocks and of their (inherent) dynamics enable us to discern the right time to act – BASICS OF TIME? The data on trends in transportation tell us that the general rule ‘the sooner, the better’ applies to all the above mentioned needs for action. The areas where a need for action has been identified essentially relate to plans which, by their very nature, are only able to affect the environment in the long term. The analysis of stocks, however, shows that there are no fundamental obstacles to acting right away. The only question is whether or not the political will exists to do so.
3.4 Reflection
“In the foregoing pages we have applied the heuristic developed in the concept BASICS OF TIME, Section 3.4 to 3.6 (for more details see Klauer et al. 2017: chapter 11) to the policy field of inland shipping. We have followed the steps set out in the heuristic and have taken account of its guidelines and rules wherever relevant. The kind of information evaluated was essentially that which is readily accessible in statistics or reports. One characteristic feature of our approach is that both quantitative and qualitative information as well as information about physical infrastructures and organisational arrangements – i.e. material and immaterial stocks – were evaluated in conjunction with one another. The very co-presentation of these different kinds of information makes it possible to discern linkages and interconnecting factors which may be surprising. By placing the analytic description in relation to sustainability goals it then becomes possible to work out what the need for action is. In other words, it was possible to generate contextual and practical knowledge.
To summarise, then: The heuristic takes as its point of departure both factual knowledge and knowledge of rules. How these separate pieces of information are selected, weighted and linked together, however, depends on the considerations, judgements and opinions applied to them – and that is the domain of the faculty of judgement – POWER OF JUDGEMENT. When people use knowledge to underpin the decisions they make about how to act, this knowledge is typified by an interweaving of facts and judgements. The contextual and practical knowledge created by applying the heuristic is thus a synthesis of factual knowledge and knowledge of rules on the one hand and of experience, judgements and evaluative assessments on the other. To this extent the case study has illustrated how the concept of stocks and the heuristic derived from it can be understood as a bridging principle for purposes of judgement” (Klauer et al. 2017: 2-217).
3.5 The stocks framework: a lesson in long-term thinking
Begin with things as they are
“The idea of sustainability – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – ultimately calls for action in society, politics and academia. Sustainability demands that we take precautionary action – RESPONSIBILITY – to ensure the well-being of future generations, that we dismantle existing conditions of injustice between the rich and the poor and that we treat the natural environment with care. These demands are extremely demanding, both ethically and intellectually:
– From an ethical perspective, each person, society as a whole and above all those who represent certain groups of people – INDIVIDUAL, COMMUNITY & ENTIRETY – politically are called upon to take action against unjust conditions. This means striving to live life in such a way that it does not endanger the natural environment upon which human survival or indeed nature as a whole depends. When doing so, each person needs to ask themselves whether what they are doing right now is beneficial in the long term as well. In other words, they need to put all the things they do in their everyday lives to this test. In doing so they will probably discover that many of their actions – if not most of them – do not do justice to the demands of sustainability. Unlike ordinary citizens, politicians have an additional responsibility for collective action – RESPONSIBILITY.
A focus on ‘time’
The stocks framework starts out from the way things are in two respects:
– Second, reality is looked at in such a way that genuine options for action remain in focus. In this way, reality comes to be perceived as changing and changeable over the course of time – BASICS OF TIME.
This approach complements those sustainability strategies which study issues of justice – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE – in particular because it stresses the aspects of time and the long term which, although they are essential to achieving sustainability, are at the same time especially hard to handle.
One essential feature of the stocks framework is that three different meanings of time are used – BASICS OF TIME – which, at first glance, may appear to have little in common with one another but which, when placed in relation to one another, open up new perspectives. When we look at stocks in nature and society we need to understand time, on the one hand, in the way we usually do, as an objective entity measurable in terms of seconds, years and centuries. We have named this conception of time chronos. We assume that this conception of time is relevant when it comes to durable structures – stocks – and their dynamics.
Judgement and developing a ‘sense of what is essential’
The possibilities for sustainable action in the face of the fundamental incompleteness of knowledge and human inadequacies are referred to in the context of our stocks framework in terms of the faculty of judgement – POWER OF JUDGEMENT. Judgement is the human ability to place specific situations and general principles, rules or features in relation to one another. It is needed, on the one hand, to bridge the gap between the fundamental ethical requirements of sustainability and specific conditions for action. It also serves, on the other hand, to apply general knowledge to concrete states of affairs and situations. Judgement comprises the ability to define problems appropriately, to distinguish what is important from what is unimportant and what is conducive from what is misleading, and to integrate diverse elements into an overall picture. On top of this, one of the tasks of judgement is to perceive where there is a lack of knowledge and to deal with it in an appropriate way. It becomes apparent at this point that ignorance, or lack of knowledge, not only indicates the limited nature of our knowledge but also facilitates a certain open-endedness to our actions.
The role of the stocks framework is to provide guidelines for our faculty of judgement in respect of sustainability – SUSTAINABILITY & JUSTICE. We have developed it into a guide for action – a heuristic – which is intended to help decision makers grasp sustainability problems in terms of their temporal dimension. The heuristic is intended to provide them with a degree of guidance on the complex terrain of sustainability policy and help them find paths leading towards successful policies.
The art of long-term thinking
4. Literature
Key Literature
Further Reading
-
Klauer, Bernd, Manstetten, Reiner, Petersen, Thomas, Schiller, Johannes (2017) Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking, Routledge, London and New York. [ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS is mainly taken from this pioneering book.]
References
-
Philosophy
Aristotle (2014) Nichomachian Ethics, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis.
Binswanger, H. C. (1985) Geld und Magie. Deutung und Kritik der modernen Wirtschaft anhand von Goethes Faust. Edition Weiberecht, Stuttgart.
Faber, Malte and Reiner Manstetten (2014) Was ist Wirtschaft? Von der Politischen Ökonomie zur Ökologischen Ökonomie, second Edition. Alber, Freiburg.
Faber, Malte and Reiner Manstetten (2010) Philosophical Basics of Ecology and Economy, Routledge, London, New York. – Translated by Dale Adams from the German edition Mensch – Natur – Wissen. Grundlagen der Umweltbildung. Vandenhoek & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 2003.
Horkheimer, Max and Theodor W. Adorno (1971), Dialektik der Aufklärung, Frankfurt a. M.
Kant, Immanuel (1855) Critique of Pure Reason. Hrmry g. Bohn. London.
Petersen, Thomas and Malte Faber (2018), Karl Marx und die Philosophie der Wirtschaft. Unbehagen am Kapitalismus und die Macht der Politik, fourth Edition as extended new version, Alber, Freiburg.
Theory of stocks
Faber, Malte (2017) Foreword of Klauer, Bernd, Manstetten, Reiner, Petersen, Thomas, Schiller, Johannes (2017) Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking, Routledge, London and New York: IXX- XX.
Faber, Malte/Frank, Karin/Klauer, Bernd/Manstetten, Reiner/Schiller, Johannes/ Wissel, Christian (2005a): Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Theorie der Bestände. In: Beckenbach, Frank/Hampicke, Ulrich/Leipert, Christian/Meran, Georg/Minsch, Jürg/Nutzinger, Hans G./Pfriem, Reinhard/Weimann, Joachim/Wirl, Franz/Witt, Ulrich (eds.): Innovationen und Nachhaltigkeit. Jahrbuch Ökologische Ökonomik 4. Metropolis, Marburg, 251–294.
Faber, Malte/Frank, Karin/Klauer, Bernd/Manstetten, Reiner/Schiller, Johannes/Wissel, Christian (2005b): On the foundation of a general theory of stocks. Ecological Economics, 55, 155–172. [This is a first attempt to develop a theory of stocks.]
Faber, Malte and Reiner Manstetten, (1998) »Produktion, Konsum und Dienste in der Natur – Eine Theorie der Fonds«, in: Selbstorganisation, Jahrbuch für Komplexität in den Natur-, Sozial- und Geisteswissenschaften Bd. 9, Evolution und Selbstorganisation in der Ökonomie, hrsg. von F. Schweitzer/Silberberg, G.: 209–236.
Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (1971): The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. [Pioneering monograph introducing the concept of stock into economic analysis.]
Klauer, Bernd, Manstetten, Reiner, Petersen, Thomas, Schiller, Johannes (2013) The art of long-term thinking: A bridge between sustainability science and politics. Ecological Economics, 93, 79–84. [Summary of the theory of stocks employed in this concept.]
Klauer, Bernd, Manstetten, Reiner, Petersen, Thomas, Schiller, Johannes (2017) Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking, Routledge, London and New York. [ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS is mainly taken from this pioneering book.]
Norton, Bryan G./Toman, Michael A. (1997): Sustainability: Ecological and Economic Perspectives. Land Economics, 73(4), 553–568.
Wodopia, Franz-Josef (1986): Time and Production. Period versus continuous analysis. In: Faber, Malte (ed.): Studies in Austrian Capital Theory, Investment in Time. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg et al.
Theory of capital
Bliss, Christopher (1975) Capital theory and Distribution of Income. Amsterdam, North Holland. [classic book on neoclassical capital theory.]
Burmeister, Edwin (1974) “Synthesizing the Neo-Austrian and Alternative Approaches to Capital Theory: A Survey.” Journal of Economic Literature.
Burmeister, Edwin (1980) Capital theory and Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, England etc. [Standard textbook on neoclassical capital theory.]
Faber, Malte (1979) Introduction to Austrian Capital Theory. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Faber, Malte (1980) „Relationships between Modern Austrian Capital Theory and Sraffa’s Capital Theory“, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft 136: 617-629.
Faber, Malte (Ed.) (1986) Studies in Austrian Capital Theory, Investment and Time. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Faber, Malte, Proops, John L.R., Speck, Stefan, with Jöst, Frank (1999) Capital and Time in Ecological Economics. Neo-Austrian Modelling. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, Northampton, MA, USA. [Overview of how Neo-Austrian capital theory can be applied in Ecological Economics.]
Hartcourt, Geoffrey C. (1972) Some Cambridge Controversies on the Theory of Capital, Cambridge, England, Cambridge University Press. [Sraffa’s book (1960) led to the Neo-Ricardian theory of capital, which led to a heated controversy with neoclassical economists. Hartcourt’s book gives a detailed account of the controversy.]
Hennings, Klaus H. (1997) The Austrian theory of Capital and Value. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US. [This is a detailed and excellent account of Böhm-Bawerk’s theory of capital by a pupil of John Hicks. Böhm-Bawerk was the founder of Austrian capital theory.]
Hicks, John (1973) Capital and Time. A Neo-Austrian Approach. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1939. [This is a major contribution to Neo-Austrian capital theory.]
Kurz, Heinz Dieter (1990) „Debates in Capital Theory“. In: Eatwell, J, M. Milgate and P. Newman (eds.) Capital Theory. Macmillan, London
Marx, Karl (1867-1894) Capital. Progress Publishers (1965-1967), Moscow.
Pellengahr, I. (1986) „Austrians versus Austrians I: a subjectivist view“, in M. Faber (ed.) Studies in Austrian Capital Theory, Investment and Time, Springer, Heidelberg: 60-77.
Reiß, Winfried (1981) Umwegproduktion und Positivität des Zinses. Eine neo-österreichische Analyse. Duncker & und Humblot, Berlin.
Sraffa, Piero (1960) Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. [Piero Sraffa (1898 – 1983) is, like the Neo-Austrians, an outsider to economics. Sraffa employs a classical approach which has Ricardian traits but also some in common with the Marxian approach. An example is that the demand side is missing. His book gave rise to the Neo-Ricardian School (see Faber 1980 and Newman 1962).]
Stephan, Gunter, (1995) Introduction to Capital theory. A Neo-Austrian Perspective. Springer, Heidelberg etc. [This is an advanced text on Neo-Austrian capital theory and its relations to neoclassical capital theory.]
Weizsäcker, Carl Christian von (1971) Steady State Capital Theory. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. [This monograph views Austrian capital theory from a steady-state perspective, which is manly employed in neoclassical growth theory.]
Case study
Baumgartner, Frank R./Jones, Bryan D. (2002): Policy Dynamics. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Brown, Gardner M./Johnson, Ralph W. (1984): Pollution Control by Effluent Charges: It Works in the Federal Republic of Germany, Why Not in the U.S.? Natural Resources Journal, 22, 929–966. [This paper takes stock of the water policy in the U.S.A. in the 1970s.]
BMU – Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit (2007): Nationale Strategie zur Biologischen Vielfalt. Berlin.
BMU/BfN – Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit/Bundesamt für Naturschutz (2009): Auenzustandsbericht – Flussauen in Deutschland. Berlin, Bonn
BMVBS – Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung (2010): Verkehrsinvestitionsbericht 2009. Deutscher Bundestag, Drucksache 17/444, 17. Wahlperiode, 14.01.2010.
BMVBW – Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau- und Wohnungswesen (2002): Grundzüge der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Bewertungsmethodik. Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2003. Berlin.
BMVBW – Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Wohnungswesen (2003): Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2003. Grundlagen für die Mobilität der Zukunft. http://www.bmvbs.de/Anlage/original_15944/Bundesverkehrswege-plan-2003-Beschluss-der-Bundesregierung-vom-02.-Juli-2003.pdf, 25.05.2009.
Faber, Malte/Manstetten, Reiner/Petersen, Thomas (1997): Homo Oeconomicus and Homo Politicus. Political Economy, Constitutional Interest and Ecological Interest. Kyklos, 50(4), 457–483.
Faber, Malte, Niemes, Horst and Stephan, Gunter (1983) Anpassungsprozesse als Folge von Geswässerschutzmaßnahmen im Entsorgungsraum der BASF-Kläranlage, Ludwigshafen am Rhein. Chemiker Zeitung, 107: 57-65.
Faber, Malte, Niemes, Horst and Stephan, Gunter (1983) Umweltschutz und Input-Output Analyse. Mit zwei Fallstudien aus der Wassergütewirtschaft (Environmental Protection and Input-Output Analysis. With two case studies on water-quality management). J.C.B Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tübingen.
Faber, Malte/Stephan, Gunter/Michaelis, Peter (1989): Umdenken in der Abfallwirtschaft. Vermeiden, Verwerten, Beseitigen. (Rethinking Waste Management. Avoiding, Commercialising, Disposing). 2. ed., Springer, Berlin, New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong. [This study has contributed to a reorientation in German waste policy during the 1980s and 1990s.]
German Federal Government (2002): Perspectives for Germany – Our Strategy for Sustainable Development. http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/EN/StatischeSeiten/Schwerpunkte/Nachhaltigkeit/Anlagen/perspektives-for-germany-langfassung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1, 20.01.2014.
Glas, Christian (1996): Wirtschaftsgeographische Neubewertung des Main-Donau-Kanals. In: Münchner Studien zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeographie. Vol. 40. Münchner Universitätsschriften, Verlag Michael Laßleben, Kallmünz, Regensburg.
Hentrich, Steffen/Walter, Komar/Weisheimer, Martin (2000): Umweltschutz in den neuen Bundesländern: Bilanz im zehnten Jahr deutscher Einheit. Diskussionspapier 128, Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung Halle. www.iwh-halle.de/d/publik/disc/128.pdf, 06.07.2010.
Ickert, Lutz/Matthes, Ulrike/Rommerskirchen, Stefan/Weyand, Emely/Schlesinger, Michael/Limbers, Jan (2007): Abschätzung der langfristigen Entwicklung des Güterverkehrs in Deutschland bis 2050. Schlussbericht eines Auftrages des Bundesministeriums für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung, Projekt-Nr. 26.0185/2006. Basel.
Klauer, Bernd/Gunkel, Stephan (2009): Eckpunkte einer nachhaltigen Binnenschifffahrtspolitik – Entwurf. Unveröffentlichtes Manuskript.
LAF – Landesanstalt für Altlastenfreistellung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt (2002): Altlastensanierung in Sachsen-Anhalt. Magdeburg.
LAF – Landesanstalt für Altlastenfreistellung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt (2010): 10 Jahre Landesanstalt für Altlastenfreistellung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt. Von Industriebrachen zu attraktiven Wirtschaftsstandorten. Magdeburg.
Lee-Peuker, Mi-Yong/Klauer, Bernd (2010): Bringing About Institutional Change in Public Brownfield Management – the Case of Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). UFZ Discussion Paper 5/2010, Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research, Leipzig.
Olsson, Per/Gunderson, Lance H./Carpenter, Steve R./Ryan, Paul/Lebel, Louis/Folke, Carl/Holling, Crawford S. (2006): Shooting the rapids. Navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 11(1), 18.
Petersen, Thomas/Faber, Malte (2000): Bedingungen erfolgreicher Umweltpolitik im deutschen Föderalismus. Der Ministerialbeamte als Homo politicus. Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft, 1/00, 5–41.
Petry, Daniel/Klauer, Bernd (2005): Umweltbewertung und politische Praxis in der Bundesverkehrswegeplanung – Eine Methodenkritik illustriert am Beispiel des geplanten Ausbaus der Saale. Metropolis, Marburg.
Petschow, Ulrich/Wlodarski, Wojciech (2009): Stand und Potenziale der Elbe-Binnenschifffahrt und deren wirtschaftliche Wirkungen auf die Elbe-Region. Schriftenreihe des IÖW 194/09, Inst. für ökolog. Wirtschaftsforschung, Berlin.
Sabatier, Paul A. (1988): An Advocacy Coalition Model of Policy Change and the Role of Policy-Oriented Learning Therein. Policy Sciences, 21, 129–168.
van der Brugge, Rutger/Rotmans, Jan/Loorbach, Derk (2005): The transition in Dutch water management. Regional Environmental Change, 5(4), 164–176.
Online-References
Bundesverband Güterkraftverkehr, Logistik und Entsorgung:
http://www.bgl-ev.de/image/daten/verkehr/transportleistung_tabelle.pdf, 11.11.2010BMVBS 2010: 290, see: http://www.wsv.de/wasserstrassen/index.html, last access 29.10.2018).
BMVBS 2012: http://www.bmvbs.de/SharedDocs/DE/Artikel/WS/reform-wasser-schifffahrtsverwaltung-fragen-und-antworted.html, last access14.09.2012.
BMVBW – Bundesministerium für Verkehr, Bau und Wohnungswesen (2003): Bundesverkehrswegeplan 2003. Grundlagen für die Mobilität der Zukunft. http://www.bmvbs.de/Anlage/original_15944/Bundesverkehrswege-plan-2003-Beschluss-der-Bundesregierung-vom-02.-Juli-2003.pdf, 25.05.2009.
German Federal Government (2002): Perspectives for Germany – Our Strategy for Sustainable Development. http://www.bundesregierung.de/Content/EN/StatischeSeiten/Schwerpunkte/Nachhaltigkeit/Anlagen/perspektives-for-germany-langfassung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1, 20.01.2014.
Copy Rights
-
The content of MINE originates from scientific work published in books and peer-reviewed journals. Quotes are indicated by a special typographic style.
The project team would like to thank the publishers Edward Elgar, Elsevier, Routledge, Springer and Taylor & Francis for granting a reproduction permission.
Furthermore, we want to express our gratitude to Bernd Klauer, Reiner Manstetten, Thomas Petersen and Johannes Schiller for supporting the MINE Project and granting the permission to use parts of the content of their book “Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking.”
We are indebted to Prof. Joachim Funke, Ombudsman for Good Scientific Practice at Heidelberg University and the legal department at Heidelberg University, for their advice and support.
The main source of this concept is the following publication:
Klauer, Bernd, Reiner Manstetten, Thomas Petersen and Johannes Schiller (2017) Sustainability and the Art of Long-Term Thinking, Routledge, Abington, Oxon and New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. The material is reproduced in MINE with permission of the Licensor through PLSclear (Ref. No: 8527, licenced 14.12.2018). We want to express our gratitude to Bernd Klauer, Reiner Manstetten, Thomas Petersen and Johannes Schiller for supporting the MINE Project and granting the permission to use parts of the content of their book.